Philosophy of Religion

Philosophy of Religion

Dr. Basharat Ali, M.A., Ph. D.

Science with its empirical starting point has nothing to say about the truth or falsity of things supernatural i.e., those outside the compass of human sensory experience. It is intended by the philosophy of religion to seek plausible answers where science cannot yield them. Almost all the religious philosophies, formulated under the precinct of various religions contest that having lived once, the individual is more likely to live again in the unfolding of the processes of the universe.

In contradistinction to the philosophies of the non-revealed religion like Hinduism, Buddhism etc. the revealed religions stress that it is reasonable to believe that a Cosmic mind is the central force and guiding principle of the universe. Another basic difference between the revealed and the non-revealed religions is to be clearly noted. The affirmation of the existence of a God outside the empirical world is more than a fancy in the religious philosophies of the non-revealed religion.

An interesting point of philosophy arises in connection with the scientific explanation of the visions of Prophets. Even if it is assumed that their revelations are scientifically explained as products of psychological conditioning, the philosophy may still reason that a Cosmic mind chose the medium of an exceptional mind to reveal its will to mankind.

Judaism regards revelations to Prophets as not having a privileged character, but rather as being products of institution through which God reveals His will to a well disposed and well schooled individual.

Christianity considers the experience of Christ’s spirit to be one which any human being with faith in the power of that spirit may have. In contrast to the view-points of Judaism and Christianity Islam holds an integrated view, enunciated by the Quran at various occasions as follows:-

1.     It is a universal fact (99:4-5; 4-5; 16:68).

2.     It is granted to Prophets and non-prophets alike (4:l63).

3.     Universal experience of man (35:24).

4.     It descends upon the heart (53:10).

5.     It helps the general uplift of man (38:2).

6.     It is the basis of moral development of man. (70:23-35).

7.     It awakens consciousness of higher life (71: 17-18).

8.     Humanitarian aspect of revelation (45:28).

9.     Prophets are raised in all nations (35:24).

10.  Muslims must believe in all Prophets (42152).

11.  Service of humanity is the greatest object of man’s life (90: ll-16).

12.  Universality (6 : 92).

From the categories mentioned above it is clear that the content of religions experience falls entirely in the domain of verifiable phenomena. If the authority of Prof. M. Horten is to be taken as a valid thesis, like J.B. Parlatf, the various types of relationships found in religious beliefs may be analyzed into two components. There is a relationship between the supernatural world outside of experience and the natural world within experience. It is stated by Ignaz Goldziher and Prof. Horten that Razi, Abu Rashed and Abu Hashims hold that God does not interrupt natural psychological laws, but functions through them.

He bears the same relationship to the universe as the human mind does to its body, which is that of parallelism or functional correspondence between spirit and matter. It is very unfortunate indeed that the philosophy of Razi has been misunderstood and misrepresented. He has attempted to explain worship and prayer to take place under natural psychological laws. It also involves harmony with God’s supernatural will. In this sense the supernatural world is an unexperienced extension of the world of natural laws. The views, held by some of the modern philosophers of religion, regarding the relationship between the supernatural and natural worlds asserting that the two have no causal connection have been rejected by the Muslim theologians and philosophers of religion. Abdus Subhan in his article (“The relationship of God to time and space as seen by the Mutazebetes”, published in “Islamic Culture” (l943) holds, that such a concept was contrary even to thinking of the Mutazebtes, who have been charged as heretics for their free departure in the philosophical thought.

Abul-Hasan al-Ashari, no doubt has vehemently rejected the naturalistic concept of God, advocated by the Mutazebtes. In this approach God IS considered to be an object experienced in the natural and psychological processes of religion. Such statements as “God is love", “God is the totality of our ideals” and “God is altruism” etc., define God as a natural part of human personality. Galland H (Essai Zur Les Mutazilites), H. Steiner (Die Mutazeliten) and the vensable scholar of our country Allama Shibbli Nu’mani, failed to grasp the philosophical position of the Mutazebtes in this particular field, however, they may be heretical in other respects. If the terms ‘love’ ‘ideals’ and ‘altruism’ are based upon demonstrable data, the God referred to is as much a real part of the world of science as any psychological reality can be. At least Mutazelites and Fakhruddin al-Razi, must be credited with this finding that a naturalistic concept of God may be combined in religious thinking with supernatural views of larger aspects of God’s nature beyond human experience, aspects which are essentially unexperienced extensions of the natural world of experience. The English knowing scholars of Islamology are well familiar with Macdonald D. B. (Muslim theology) and A.S., Tritton (Muslim theology), but their glaring mistakes about the issue under discussion have been overlooked. Nothing to say of Mutazelites, Ignaz Goldziher in his Gotteslievbe In Der Islamischen Theologie, rightly remarks that even the heretics like Kliarijites were not free from the love of God.

The clash between philosophy and religion or, science and philosophy is no more in existence today but the philosophy of religion stands in opposition to science as before. The view point which restricts the study of religion is the contention that values are outside the natural world and, therefore, outside the scope of scientific inquiry. The scholars of Islamology, more particularly of Islamic philosophy, were misled by the deliberate attempt of the orientalists that Islamic philosophy, in its structure and operation, is guided by the forces of the Grecian philosophy. This pseudo-idea was popularized initially by Ignaz Goldziher, De Boer and Munk and soon caught the imagination of the western scholars, and their eastern followers. But, we are in a position to assert that the philosophy of religion in Islam developed along the meanings, values and axiological structure of the Quran. On this account it is very difficult to discriminate between philosophy of religion and theology. This idealistic integrated view paved the way for the total harmony and unity between philosophy and religion and science and religion. Schreiner in his Kalam and Theologische Bewegungen, aptly remarks that in the Muslim’s view philosophy and science are primarily meant for the service of religion. Consequently neither science nor philosophy, as assumed in the modern times, are impediments in the study of values, meanings and exiological structure of religion. According to the Qur’anic point of view as enunciated in Suras Nahl, Namil, Hud, Ra’d and Rahman etc. if the science and philosophy avoid values in pursuing their inquiry they are no more science or philosophy. The hypothetical mistakes of the modern scientists are to be seen in their sheer presumption to set aside values during scientific analysis. This does not mean that values themselves may not be data in the inquiry. Whatever may be the field of scientific inquiry it is demanded by the Quran that it is most appropriate task for scientist to discover and demonstrate universal laws of values, so that mankind as a whole, can move forward towards them. In drawing together the various threads concerning the study of values as a field of discussion in the philosophy of religion and theology the following represent the view point of the Muslim thinkers.

1.     By value is meant the experience of realizing the end. What is the ultimate value according to the philosophy of religion as envisaged by Islam?

(a)   Grand object of Muslims is to establish Divine Unity and Love of Allah (II : 165).

“And your God is one God there is no God but He: He is the Beneficent, the Mericful” (2:163)

(b)   Except the seeking of the pleasure of his Lord, the most High.

And He will soon be well pleased (92 :20-21).

(c)   Say: My prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death are surely for Allah, the Lord of the Worlds – No associate has He. And this am I commanded and I am the first of those who submit (6 : 162- 163).

These definitions clearly point out the relative merits of spiritual goals or personal and scoio-cultural wants in the larger picture of total life fulfillment, which provides important topic for empirical study. Those who do not do so, belong according to the Quran, to a sub-human type ;

Allah has sealed their hearts and their hearing; and there is a covering in their eyes, and for them is the grievest chastisement (2 : 7).

2.     When the object of desire is outside the empirical world, study of the object belongs to philosophy, but the description and the analysis of the desire fall within the science of psychology.

3.     When the object of desire is within verifiable experience, both the object and the desire can be studied by the procedure of science. This point of view is set forth by the Quran itself in its Sura Rahman and philosophically utilized by Imam Ghazali, Ibn Arabi, Waliullah and Qamaruddin of Aurangabad.

Nature of Scientific Study.

The Quran is the first book which has declared that historically and in reality there is no conflict between science and religion. There is no dogmatism in Islam which is not ultimately based on scientific basis. The absolute truth given by God is the object of inquiry and rational belief, such being the logic of the Quran, science, according to it, is a method for investigating situations to obtain correct conclusions which are thereby accumulated. According to Sura Rahman, fundamental to an understanding of scientific method is the realization that it is a way of knowing, and way of getting to know the truth.

All theologians and philosophers of religion are agreed on the point that the purpose of religion is to stimulate and to organize the feeling of the people toward life so that they find importance and inspiration in what they do. None of the religions, except Islam, lays emphasis on this fact that in order to accomplish this effectively through religion there should be awareness of socio-psychological factors in the processes involved. From the study of Imam Ghazaali, Waliullah of Delhi and Mulana Qamaruddin Aurangabadi, one thing is very clear. Out of studies searching for elements of religion emerge the materials for religious reconstruction of life. One living miracle of the truth of Al-Quran is to be seen in its reiterated emphasis on the fact that intellectual apprehension of religion is not possible without active participation in religion. The verse 33 : 21, among other things points out that a concrete idea of religion requires living in accordance with patterns which produce an experience of religion. Waliullah of Delhi in his Hujjat, in full conformity with the Qur’anic stand-point rightly stresses that a definition of religion incorporates elements of both internal experience and behaviour. On the internal side, religion is an afi'air of aim and belief. On the external side, religion involves behaviour ranging from minutest details to the details of daily activities, permeated by the influence of religion. The Qur’an enunciated these facts with great detail, in the Suras Momin, Mominun, Mumthaina, Ahzab and Mohammad etc. “Surely the men who submit and the women who submit, and the believing men and the believing women, and the obeying men and the obeying women, and the truthful men and the truthful women, and the patient men and the patient women, and the humble men and the humble women, and the charitable men and the charitable women, and the fasting men who guard their chastity and the women who guard, and the men who remember Allah much and the whom who remember—Allah has prepared for them forgiveness and a mighty reward (33 : 35).

Inspite of pugnacity and pungent criticism Ignaz Goldziher has to recognize the most distinguishing feature of Islamic theology and philosophy of religion in his Gottesliebe Inder Islamischen Theologie.

One of the most controversial areas in the philosophy of religion, theology and Kalam pertains to the existence and nature of God. The Muslim thinkers in full conformity with the Qur’anic orientations, have introduced the topic in its multi-dimensional aspects of science and philosophy at the level of human understanding. We take the liberty to summarize them here, because of misunderstanding and misrepresentation by the western scholars like Goldziher, Macdonald, Tritton, Schreiner and a host of others.

1.     If introduced as a topic for scientific treatment beyond describing some-one as having a belief in God, it must be made clear what the elements are within experience to which the term “God” is applied.

In answer to this issue, the Quran gives abundance of proof from the physical universe, and in Sura Rahman after providing minutest details from the Cosmos, asks:

Which then of the bounties of your Lord, will you deny ?

2.     If outside of experience, the questions are those of philosophy, not of science.

3.     If within verifiable experience, then hypotheses can be stated in experiential terms for verification and acceptance or rejection.

The philosophy of religion of Islam invalidates all the definitions provided by most of the modern thinkers. In their overt and covert aspects, they are dichotomous. The Quran defines religion in terms of scientifically verifiable elements of experience. It is a feeling of absolute dependence on God who is “nearer to man’s vein”. The usefulness of the concept of unseen is that it subsumes both the supernatural and the inward realities of religion. There is full conformity with this view point among all the theologians and philosophers of religion from the beginning to the last phase. There is no difference in this direction even by the Kharajites and the Mutazibtes. Muslim world will have to remain indebted for the sumptuous services rendered by Abdul Hasan al-Ashari (died 1 935), Ahmad al-Hamadani (dz 1029), Mawardi (dz 1058), Ibn Hazn (d : 1064), Ghazali (d : 1111) and a host of others. The recognition of God is tantamount to the identification of religion with the pursuit of values of ideals. The type of philosophy which one constructs as an interpretation of the universe affects the development and pursuit of ideals. To the extent the philosophy of religion in Islam incorporates ideas of God and ideals they may be affected by supernatural elements in religion.

The foregoing considerations lead to the following Religion is a system of

1.     beliefs in an unseen order of Higher Power,

2.     activities to gain Mercy and protection of the Higher Power,

3.     experiences accompanying these things.

The Higher Power is a component within personality, beliefs, aims, activities, needs and experiences involved in whatever occupies human beings.

“Those to whom men said 1 Surely people have gathered against you, so fear them; but this increased their faith, and they said : Allah is sufficient for us and He is an excellent Guardian.

“So they returned with favour from Allah and (His) grace; no evil touched them, and they followed the pleasure of Allah. And Allah is the Lord of mighty grace. (3: 174)

In factually generalizing about beliefs concerning God the philosophy of religion and theology in full conformity with the Qur’an, distinguishes between two kinds of components—those which are not exposable to empirical test and those which pertain to observable matters. From the very term “Amil” with its derivities, it is clear that as long as the power remains potential rather than actual, the most which can he accomplished from the stand-point of empirical study is to note that people do believe in the existence of such at Higher Power.

The characteristic feature of Islamic philosophy. the vital evidence and document of which is to be found in its two specialities — Kalam and theology, is that rationalism and empiricism are united into one composite whole. Such a unity is not contrary to the methodology of the Qur’an. The separation of rationalists and empiricists in the modern philosophy of religion, according to Purnell Handy Benson, is artificial. Since eclectics draw upon both types of analysis in their explanation of religion, the philosophy of religion in Islam is primarily guided by the genius and the very nature of the idealistic integracism of Islam, and hence it stands in opposition to the philosophies propounded by Hegel. Comte, Robertson Smith, Durkheim, Feurbach, W. M. James, John Dewey and Lcuba etc. Similarly the altruistic ideas, propagated by the modern thinkers like Wiemttn and Sorokin are not new indeed. The idea that God is lovc at least is not new to the Muslims. It is rejected by the Qur’an. Love in exclusivity with those of other attributes. carries no meaning. The Christian altruism with specific emphasis on love, to the total negation of its constituent element—-the attribute of “Rahmzm” is not only juxtaposition but an oppositorum and dichotomy:

“Say: Call on Allah or call on the Beneficent (al-Rehman) by whatever (name) you call on Him. He has the best names.” (17:110).

As pointed out by lbn Hazin and Shahristaiti, the prominent Christian scholars of comparative religion do not recognize ‘Allah to be Rahman, because it means that Allah shows mercy to His creatures without their having done anything to deserve it. while the Christian doctrine of atonement is based on the belief that Allah cannot show mercy without receiving some satisfaction. This satisfaction was provided by Jesus, by sacrificing his life at the cross.

Sorokin’s contemporaries, overlooked the deeper significance of his pioneer studies in altruism, but from the point of view of Islam, Sorokin’s altruism is based on the ideational Christian cultural mentality and hence the same dichotomy and contradictions are exhibited in it.

“Nevertheless”, writes Mahmud Muhtar Katireioglo in his Introduction to the Wisdom of the Qur’an, that the attempt has been made to define the nature of God by quoting the attributes enunciated in the Qur’an, of which three principal categories are distinguished:

1.     The principal attribute: Nafsia-being,

2.     Essential attributes: ZaIiya-authority, eternity, plenitude, originality, unity.

3.     Constant attributes: Subutiya—life, wisdom, hearing, sight, will. speech, creation.

These thirteen attributes express the essence of the person or hypostasis, that is to say of the Divine. “Muhammadan theology”, says the author referred to alone distinguishes,

1.     Zat or the Divine hypostasis, the source of all existence.

2.     The Sifat, or attributes, that flow from the creative entity.

3.     The act of differentiation which emanates from Divinity (op. cit. XXXII). So far it is quite true but neither the theologian nor the philosophy of religion has to say anything about the structural dependence and axiological framework of these attributes. According to the Qur’anic verse 17:110, quoted above, I am persuaded to infer that all attributes are the derivatives from the major attributes of Ahad and Rahman and Raheem.

“Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds, the Beneficent, the Merciful, Master of the day of Requital. Thee do we serve and Thee do we beseech for help. Guide us on the right path, the path of those upon whom Thou hast bestowed favours, not those upon whom Wrath is brought down nor those who go astray”.

The problems of the nature of religion and God in terms of social system are not contrary to the philosophy of religion. The achievement of future opportunities is provided by the Qur’an itself in its suru Al-Asr, for systematic inquiry, by the individuals in their own life.

In contradistinction to the theologies and philosophies of religions of the world for having credited space-time causality, selectivity, ever newness, individuality and continuity as the integral part of religion, the Muslim theologians and philosophers have taken full cognizance of them in conformity with the Qur’anic outlook. The above mentioned systems of motivation, according to Al-Asr, operating in religion are designated as spiritual.