The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge

The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge

Dr M. Basharat Ali

Sociology of Knowledge

There is a close relationship between the fields of the Sociology of Knowledge and the Philosophy of Knowledge. Actually, this relationship may be called special socio-cultural epistemology. According to the Qur’anic concept, as envisaged in the story of Adam, the Philosophy of Knowledge and the Sociology of Knowledge determine the type of reality to be attained by man for his logico-meaningful life in the worldly practice, empiricism and non-contemplation.

The Qur’anic concept of the Sociology of Knowledge is both positive and normative, and it is of three essential components: (1) research into facts (lxxii. 3); (2) synthesis of the research (xi. 120); and (3) explanatory.

These three research components include observation, description and classification and the process of experience, experimentalism and analysis. The ideational or sensate theory of knowledge is marked by the absence of such combinations, but in the idealistic concept of Sociology of Knowledge, such procedure is inevitably necessary, for it recognizes the supra-and super-empirical sources of knowledge. The modern concept of knowledge recognizes intuition as the one supra-rational source, but the Qur’an says it is the most primary source of knowledge.

The empirical stage in the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is the first logical procedure preceding theory. The Qur’an has nothing to do with the study of any mental production or any social factor but facts. Facts are casually related and are meaningful, and their understanding requires axiological layer of the mind (vide al-Rahman). Moreover, thinkers of the Sociology of Knowledge are opposed to the procedure.

The results of research. The Qur’anic Wissensoziologie is characterized by its adherence to the principles of thesis, anti-thesis, and synthesis in methodological procedure, and this procedure is followed in the solution of all sorts of social problems.

The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge starts with the thesis of systems of meaning and value–orientation pattern, which is the base of society, personality and culture. On this pattern, societies go ahead in life and value-deviancy disintegrates them. This forms the process of antithesis and the third element—synthesis—which declares that the system of meaning is the principle of Unity.

In conformity with the modern idea, the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge constantly asserts that life cannot be understood in part without maintaining the whole, and the knowledge gained should be a true representative of the meaning system. Moreover, mental constructs and socio-cultural factors are closely related, which can work as guides for the prediction of future events. The result thus obtained can be expanded more and more to be used in the meaningful development of society, culture and personality. This means to say that the theory is indispensable for the dynamism of knowledge. The theory should be both axiomatic and axiological and more than the generalization of empirical results.

To consider an activity from the philosophical point of view means to relate it to what is considered authentic reality. The Qur’an asks what the meaning of ‘real’ is. The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge thus determines what knowledge is, not only on the psychological and phenomenal planes, but also on the cosmological, teleological, ontological, transcendental and noumenal ones.

The question arises: Knowledge for what? The Qur‘anic Sociology of Knowledge answers: All knowledge at the initial stage meant for certainty. And to search for knowledge, travelling is needed.

According to the Qur‘an, society means the totality of interacting persons and culture when both envisage meanings, values and norms. Thus, the Sociology of Knowledge is part of the system of knowledge, culture, functional base of the society, which study the entire human life, nature and socio-cultural phenomena as they are related to man.

The Qur’an disdains the outlook that demarcates knowledge as profane and sacred, divine knowledge as against mundane systems of knowledge, science and humanities. According to the Qur’an, there is nothing like profane or sacred. All are the objects of creation and signs of God.

Comprehensive sociological epistemology, the empirical relations of particular socio-cultural structure and ideas, the proliferation of concept–ideas, beliefs, meanings, and value-systems, space-time causality, positive knowledge, thought, system of truth, superstructure, etc., form the content and meaning of the Qur‘anic Wissensoziologie. It not only traces the basis of truth, but also the social illusion, superstition and socially conditioned errors and forms of deception. And there is no division of knowledge into two opposite categories; knowledge is one and leads to God. It does not neglect the importance of men of knowledge in society. In this short space, it is impossible to do full justice to Qur’anic Wissensoziologie. There still remains the Sociology of Knowledge as expounded by the Ahadith. This is an exclusive topic and here we cannot discuss even its rudimentary form.

The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge

There is a close relationship between the fields of Wissensoziologie or the Sociology of Knowledge and the Wissenplzilasoplzie or the Philosophy of Knowledge in their subject matter and this relationship depends upon the structure of the two disciplines and the scope of the sociological and philosophical affirmation concerning knowledge. The clarification of these relations is a task which concerns the criticism of the Sociology and the Philosophy of Knowledge. There is no objection if we call these as the special socio-cultural epistemology. According to the Qur‘anic concept, as envisaged of the story of Adam, it is the aim of the Philosophy of Knowledge and Sociology of Knowledge to determine the type of reality. In the following verses, the Qur‘an provides not only clarification but determines the aim and the type of reality to be attained by man for his logico-meaningful life in this world:

‘And He gave Adam asma’, i.e. knowledge of all the things, then presented them to the angels; then He said: Tell Me the names of those if you are right’ (ii. 31).

This verse raises various issues. At the first instance, nothing to say of the entire verse, the very multi-polaric term asma’ refers to the fact that all knowledge is empirical, practical and non-contemplative. And, again, this very verse provides the structure of the Sociology of Knowledge.

The success of physico-chemical sciences has been a constant temptation for the modern social scientists. According to the Qur‘an, both the natural sciences and the phenomena of nature are important sources of knowledge, but they cannot inspire to formulate the Sociology of Knowledge because sociology has to originate from its exclusive source, viz, social phenomena, which are multi-variant and space–time bound. However, natural phenomena and natural sciences, both according to the Qur’anic postulate, may serve in providing a special method of approach for the analysis and clarification of data derived from the critical vision, insight and observational study of the phenomenal nature. Consequently it is logical for the Qur‘anic Sociology to invite the attention of man to see and to see again and again the science of nature:

“Who created the seven heavens alike. You see no incongruity in the creation of the Beneficent God. Then look again, can you see any disorder? Then turn back the eye again and again, your look shall come back to you confused while it is fatigued’ (lxvii. 3-4).

The Qur’anic concept of Sociology of Knowledge is both positive and normative, and it comprises of three essential stages : (1) research into facts (lxxii. 3) ; (2) synthesis of the results of research (xi. 120); and (3) explanatory.

Let us explain these three stages. Research in the implementation of the triple methods of the Qur’an: sama’, basar, fawa’d (ear, eye, heart). In these three components, not only observation, description and classification are included but with them go the research processes of experience, experimentalism and analysis. In the ideational or sensate theory of Sociology of Knowledge, such combinations are not possible but in the idealistic concept of Sociology of Knowledge, such procedure is inevitably necessary. Among the sources of knowledge, along with the sources of empirical kind, the idealistic theory of the Sociology of Knowledge of the Qur’an certainly recognizes the supra and super-empirical sources of knowledge. In the modern concept of knowledge, both in philosophy and sociology, one supra-rational source, the intuition, has been recognized. According to the Qur’anic postulate, intuition is the most primary source of knowledge which can lead to the understanding of the problems of the epistemology of knowledge, ontology of knowledge, cosmology of knowledge, etc. At its best, it can lead to the understanding of teleological knowledge, but it is beyond the purview of grasping the transcendental realities.

The empirical stage in the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is the first logical procedure. It precedes theory. In spite of this handicap, it is a necessary corollary of human life and human societal configuration. The Qur’an has nothing to do with the study of any mental production or any social factor whatsoever. The Qur’an believes that certain facts do exist. These facts arc meaningful. To understand them, we have to understand the axiological layer of mind (vide al-Rahman). So long as men are engaged in the critical study of the facts provided by the phenomenal worlds of society and Nature, they have immense possibilities of unfolding their creative energy, the subjugation of Nature and the discovery of facts. The modern thinkers of Sociology of Knowledge like Max Weber, Northrope, Schwarz and notably Karl Mannheim have taken a definitely opposite procedure in their search of facts in relation to the formulation of the theory of knowledge. They refer to the harmony, but whatever this harmony may be, the research into facts is already directed by an idea. This is most clearly visible in the case of Sorokin. He would never have investigated the current of thought as he did if he had not the three cultural types in mind. These cultural minds are ideational, sensate and idealistic. With this differentiation, the difficulties in the modern theory of knowledge arise due to:

a)     non-specification and definition of the term ‘idea’;

b)     the entire theory being free from axiomatic and axiological basis;

c)     the entire field of knowledge and its form and content being free from their axiological base.

Jaques J. Maquet rightly comments: ‘The difference is that this “idea” is more vague and has a basis less certain than the hypothesis. Often the fact that the new idea does not easily account for all the facts, does not stop the innovator. Thus the apparent independence of the quantitative sciences in relation to the variables of Mannheim must have appeared as a very serious objection to his idea of the activistic value of knowledge. Afterwards, he made an exception of this case. Likewise, the current conception that the most ancient phases of civilization are ideational has not prevented Sorokin from looking for ideational cultures subsequent to sensate phases in the same current of civilization. Later he explains that the primitive phases are not always ideational. Thus there is a sensate period from the twelfth to the ninth century B.C. in the origins of the Greek world.’ (Karl Mannheim, Sociology of Knowledge, The Beacon Press, Boston, 1951, ff Conant: 95-96)

Result of research: It is the characteristic feature of Qur’anic Wissensnziologie, or Qur'anic Sociology of Knowledge that it always adheres to the principle of thesis, antithesis and synthesis in its methodological procedure. Consequently the results derived are ultimately synthesized. This procedure is vehemently and categorically followed in the solution of all the problems – social, cultural and otherwise. Like other thought-patterns, the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge starts; with the thesis of systems of meaning and value-orientation pattern. It means to say that as the first principle of the analysis of the problems, the Qur’an starts with the framework of reference of the phenomenal, socio-cultural and physico-psychological world. The Qur'an definitely points out that the base of society, personality and culture and even physical Nature, is the system of meaning. On this pattern, various societies and cultures came into being and so long this pattern of meaning was not segregated, they had immense opportunities to go ahead in life. The value-deviancy pattern, according to the Qur’anic postulate, was the main cause of disintegration and finally the annihilation of societies. This forms the process, or element of the second item referred to above as antithesis. Having these two components it is logico-meaningfully and causally relevant to proceed to the third element the element of synthesis. Following these procedures methodologically, the Qur’an declares that the system of meaning, which is eternal and perpetually lasting, is the principle of Unity. Consequently, it has been declared that the ultimate unity will be triumphant (vi. 1-10). In contradistinction to the modern orientation, it is asserted by the Qur’an that general formulation does not extend the scope of the results obtained, without specification, definition and determination of the meaning. This forms the important part of the axiomatic: theory of the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge.

It is contested that if knowledge is existentially conditioned, it must not be segregated from the composite whole. It is the important feature of the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge that it constantly refers to this focal point that life cannot be understood in segmentalization without maintaining the wholeness of life. This concept has been recognized as an integral point of the modern systematic sociology of Germany. Max Weber, Simmel and Vierkandt have elaborated this thought into a systematic study. In the German terminology, it has been given two names—Enihert and Ganzheit.

From the above postulate, we can conclude that if ideas form part of the theory of knowledge, they are associated with each other. All the ideas correspond to the socio-cultural affiliation of the thinkers. Consequently, this can be seen in the ideas of the believers and non-believers, as enunciated by the Qur’an, from culture to culture, developed during the time of various prophets. If all the physical and socio-cultural phenomena as contested by the Qur’an have a meaning, the knowledge derived from them should be the true representative of their meaning system. They are susceptible of relationship of logical consistency. This consistency and sequential reference to the meaning system in the socio-cultural and the physical phenomena and their variation, according to the Qur’anic postulate formulated in the verses given below, may be known through observation, critical vision, insight, experience and experimentalism.

‘Who created the seven heavens alike. Thou seest no incongruity in the creation of the Beneficent. Then look again: Canst thou see any disorder? Then turn the eye again and again, thy look will return to thee confused, while it is fatigued’ (lxvii, 3-4).

The relationships between mental production and the socio-cultural factors can give rise to induction which permits the affirmation that the relationship will always prove correct. The only provision is that the meaning system should be identical. From the story of Adam, it is more than clear that actual linkage and logical linkage strengthen each other if they are not isolated from the meaning system.

‘We said: Go forth from this state all. Surely there will come to you a guidance from Me: then whoever follow My guidance, no fear shall come upon them, nor shall they grieve’ (ii, 38).

Thus the knowledge so gained will have a high degree of certitude in respect of what in future can be acquired. Such propositions are valuable guides to the prediction of events. The necessary corollary in the verse quoted above is that knowledge has its own existential axiological base. Neither the base nor the pursuit to discover the meanings should be disconnected, because life and knowledge will become invalid. One prediction of the consequences of such segregation is to be seen in the verse immediately following it: ‘And (as to) those who disbelieve in and reject Our messengers, they are the companions of Fire; in it they will abide’ (ii. 39).

From the very words ‘inform them of the names, and the enunciation in other verses, it is clear that synthetic formulation of the results of observation in the Sociology of Knowledge is a sum of known elements which can be expanded more and more for the new knowledge to be used in the meaningful development of society, personality and culture. This means to say that theory is indispensable to the dynamism of knowledge, the interdependent element of society and culture in their space-time dimensions. According to Sura al-‘Asr, space and time are not only the dimensions of society and culture but they are also the dimensions of all the systems of knowledge, because all knowledge that grows in society acts and reacts in it, and, like society, it is also circumscribed by its space-time dimensions. Thus theory is a construct of the mind explaining the synthesis of the results observed by postulating a principle from which these results can be deduced as consequences. In another injunction, as constantly shown by the Qur’an in its sociologism, ‘that nature and histories of other nations to be studied’ (xvii. 12; xxx. 19), theory serves as a directing principle for further research. These two roles of a theory, as pointed out by Jacques J. Marquet, constitute essentially the same intellectual procedure, laying down a principle and drawing consequences from it, then showing that these consequences have been realized in what is already known (explanatory role) and showing by new research that the things which one observes are truly realized in this way (guiding role).

We have quoted the passage because its thought patterns have been confirmed to a limited extent. Both of these roles are to be found throughout the Qur’an. For instance, the explanatory role for the search of knowledge is to be seen in the axiomatic theory of the Qur’anic Sociology in its statement that wisdom is a great good:

“He grants wisdom to whom He pleases. And whoever is granted wisdom, he indeed is given a great good. And none mind but men of understanding’ (ii, 269).

With the above verse, which is simultaneously both explanatory and guiding, another statement which refers purely to the guiding role is to be seen when the Prophet is asked to pray for increase of knowledge and travelling in search of knowledge:

‘Supremely exalted then is Allah, the King, the Truth. And make not haste with the Qur’an before its revelation is made complete to thee and say: May Lord increase me in knowledge’ (xx. 114).

‘Then they found Our servants whom We had granted mercy from Us and whom We had taught: knowledge from Ourselves’ (xvii. 65).

The Qur’anic Sociology has no objection against the construct of the mind. The theory should be both axiomatic and axiological and more than the generalization of empirical results. The Qur’an says ‘that the spiritual needs of man must be provided’ (xi. 38). From this verse it is clear that, in theory, the mind goes; beyond a pure generalization. Since the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge suggests other researches, the explanatory principle is not limited to the results obtained. ‘My Lord, increase me in knowledge.’ If I am not wrong in my deduction, I am justified in my assertion that the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is well integrated in epistemology and gnosiology, which are said to be not having clearly defined borders. The Qur’anic epistemology is mainly concerned with the problems of value, and attempts to solve the problem by a critical method, whereas gnosiology is directed to determine the nature of knowledge by locating it in the ontological, cosmological, teleological and transcendental structure of the real. In the modern gnosiology, in the search of the real, only ontological structure is taken to be quite adequate, but, in view of the Qur‘anic Sociology of Knowledge, such an approach will lead only to the partial grasp of the real.

To consider a thing an activity, from the philosophical point of view, means to relate it to what is considered authentic reality. As a consequence it will have to account for the various aspects of the phenomenal worlds of Nature, society and culture, on the one hand, and, human experience in terms of its conception of reality on the other. Ordinary language generally distinguishes a certain order of human activities different from that of other activities which is called knowledge. The Qur‘anic Sociology starts from this preamble, but asks the meaning of this phenomenon in terms of the conception of the real. The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge, thus, determines what knowledge is, not only on the psychological and phenomenal plane, but on the cosmological, teleological, ontological, transcendental and noumenal ones-. We have inferred the above ideas from the Qur’anic verses of the short Sura of al-Takathur (cii). which enunciates the three degrees of knowledge. These three degrees refer also to the immense sources of knowledge—empirical and supra, super-and hyper-empirical.

‘Nay, would that you knew with a certain knowledge—you will certainly see hell—Then you will see it with certainty of sight—Then on that day you shall certainly be questioned about the boons’ (cii. 5-8).

The question arises: Knowledge for what? There is no rambling, like Lynd in his inquiry of ‘Knowledge for What? The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge answers this query directly that all knowledge at the initial stage is meant for certainty. The verses quoted above disclose three degrees of certainty—‘ilm al-yaqin, ‘ain al-yaqin and haqq al-yaqin, i.e. certainty by inference, certainty by sight and certainty by realization. A man can, by inference, attain a certainty of the existence of hell, for instance, in this very life; after his death, he will see hell with his own eyes; a perfect manifestation of it will be realized by him on the Day of Resurrection.

Sociologically speaking, from the verses which express the nature of knowledge, certain consequences will be deduced concerning the theme of this activity and concerning the ideal to which it can lay claim, and hence concerning what truth may be.

The method employed will often be a mixture of empirical descriptions and logical deductions. Both should go in conformity. Thus a philosophy of knowledge is characterized by the plane in which it moves. It aims to discover what the real nature of knowledge is—the meaning of this activity in terms of the ontological structure of the real. Then it is characterized by the method of proof which is mainly deductive. The passing reference of the philosophy of knowledge is not without its logico-meaningful sequence. The objective of the Sociology of Knowledge is, on the one hand, to determine as precisely as possible the degree of influence of socio-cultural factors upon ideas, on the other, to determine the nature and value of our cognitive activity. This cognitive activity, according to the Qur’anic postulate, is the source of His superiority over the entire universe und the entire creation. The level is that of positive science aiming at the establishment of relations between phenomena—natural socio-cultural and psychological; on the other, that of philosophy seeking to locate knowledge in the structure of true reality. It should be noted from the Qur’anic verses that travelling is needed for search of knowledge (xviii. 65), study of Nature (xliii. 3-5), study of the conditions of different countries (xxxv, 27), study of histories of different nations (xl. 21) and control of the forces of Nature through knowledge (xvii. 70), etc., that Philosophy and Sociology of Knowledge overlap and are so to speak in congruity.

So long as man has to live and die on the earth, the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge lays emphasis on the epistemological approach towards the search of knowledge and truth. The epistemological approach will lead to determine to what extent the ideal which knowledge aspires to realize is actually reached. In this respect the degree of influence of the social factors upon knowledge will be of the utmost importance. Thus if knowledge claims to be objective, it will be essential to know that all ideas and doctrines are determined by social affiliations or that the fundamental categories of logic are dependent upon cultural premises. These social affiliations and cultural premises, according to the Qur’anic Sociology, may be meaningful or void of meaning. This categorical difference between these two social affiliations are clearly enunciated in Suras Munafiqun, Mumin and Muminun, etc. It is in this sense that the results of the Sociology of Knowledge will be among the most useful data for epistemology.

The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge, with an accelerated rate of emphasis, has to enunciate again that knowledge will be cognitive and logico-meaningful when it has as its primary aim the description of reality.

‘Read in the name of thy Lord Who creates man from a clot. Read and thy Lord is more Generous, taught man what he knew not. Nay, man is surely inordinate because he looks upon himself as self – sufficient, surely to thy Lord is the return’ (xcvi. 1-8).

From the above verses it is to be inferred that society is an organized group of individuals. Culture is a social heritage. Society and social heritage are the meaningful realities. One should have knowledge, which is in itself based on the axiological layer of mind and convey this layer to form the meaning system of society and its culture. In this case, society means the totality of interacting persons and their relations, whereas culture envisages meanings, values and norms. The Qur’anic Sociology, by definition, places all meanings in culture and hence it becomes impossible to speak about social structure without speaking about culture.

‘How can you deny Allah and you were without life and He gave you life‘! Again, He will cause you to die and again bring you to life, then you shall be brought back to Him. He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. And He directed Himself to the heaven so He made them complete seven heavens; and He is Knower of all things’ (ii. 28-29).

Thus the Sociology of knowledge is that part of the system of knowledge, culture and functional base of society which study the entire human life, Nature and socio-cultural phenomena, as they are related to the man. For man, to use his cognitive faculties principally with an aim to gain power, must be the type of Abraham, who declared:

‘Surely I have turned myself, being upright, wholly to Him Who originated the heavens and the earth and I am not of the Polytheists’ (vi. 80).

No doubt, man is the combination of rationality and irrationality, but the Qur‘anic Sociology of Knowledge never originates from the emphasis of the role of irrationality in human activity. It has been considered that ideas had hot only ideal and logical antecedents but also extra-theoretical elements. The non-eminent influence upon knowledge is located in society. It can also be conditioned by culture. This factor is often of an ideal nature.!

‘Our Lord, and make us both submissive to Thee, and (raise) from our offspring, a nation submissive to Thee, and show us our ways of devotion and turn us (mercifully). Surely Thou art the Oft-returning (to mercy), the Merciful. Our Lord. raise up in them a Messenger from among them who shall recite to them Thy messages and teach them the book and the wisdom and purify them. Surely Thou art the Mighty the Wise’ (ii. 128-129).

In contradistinction to, the segmentalized view of the Sociology of Knowledge by the modern thinkers, the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is all-embracing and a unitary whole. In the formation of ideas, as a category of knowledge, immanent, psychological, social, cultural, cosmological and supra-, super-empirical are united into one component whole. According to the Qur’anic postulate, all groups of antecedents are found as the origin of cognitive mental production and the variegated system of knowledge.

‘In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day, and the ships that run in the sea with that which profits men, and the water that Allah sends down from the sky, then gives life therewith to the earth after its death and spreads in it all (kinds of) animals, and the changing of the winds and the clouds made subservient between heaven and earth, there are surely signs for a people who understand. Yet there are some men who take for themselves objects of worship, besides Allah, whom they love as they should love Allah. And those who believe are stronger in (their) love for Allah. And O that the wrongdoers had seen, when they see the chastisement that power is wholly Allah‘s, and that Allah is severe in chastitising’ (ii. 164-165).

From the above verses, it is clear that the Sociology of Knowledge has to include history, philosophy of history, philosophy, psychology, metaphysics and eschatology, etc., as important elements for the whole knowledge. These factors may be regarded as elements which can form different constellations for each type of knowledge. Thus there are ninety Names and Attributes of God each of which is an element that can form different constellations for each type of knowledge. The principle of Taw/lid clarifies these constellations:

‘Say: Call on Allah or call on the Beneficent. By whatever (name) you call on Him, He has the best names. And utter not thy prayer loudly nor be silent in it, and seek a way between these. And say: Praise be to Allah ! Who has not taken to Himself a son, and Who has not a partner in the kingdom, and Who has not a helper because of weakness; and proclaim His greatness, magnifying (Him)’ (vii. 110-111).

It is possible that the influence upon knowledge of this constellation cannot be conceived as a direct conditioning of each one of them on such knowledge, but that they act in a chain. The prophets as an integral part of the system of meanings, in terms of their function as a system of agency and vehicle, have necessarily been given knowledge and were raised as teachers .

‘So We made Solomon to understand it. And to each (of them) we gave wisdom and knowledge. And We made the mountains, declaring (Our) glory and the birds, subservient to David. And We were the Doers’ (xxi. 79).

‘Even as We have sent among you a Messenger from among you, who recites to you Our messages and purifies you and teaches you the Book and the Wisdom and teaches you that which you did not know’ (ii. 151).

The importance of knowledge and its logico-meaningful causal relations with empirical and supra-empirical realities, on the one hand, and with society, personality, culture and nature, on the other, is to be seen in the fact that the very concept of society and culture originates from the axiomatic theory of the Sociology of Knowledge, when the Qur’an claims that Adam was given the knowledge of all the things.

‘And He taught Adam all the names, then presented them to the angels. He said: Tell Me the names of those if you are right’ (ii. 31).

And, again, the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is based on the concepts of social and cultural dynamics, on the one hand, and, on the other, it is postulated that among the periphery of the system of culture, knowledge alone could give to the culture and its system dynamic orientation, meanings, existence, potentiality, vigour, dignity, honour, individuality, specification and the sense of selectivity.

‘Is he who is obedient during hours of the night, prostrating himself and standing, taking care of the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of his Lord…? Say:—Are those who know and those who do not alike? Only men of understanding mind’ (xxxix. 9).

The dynamism of knowledge is well established when the Prophet is directed to pray for the constant increase of knowledge, which proceeds from cradle and ends in grave.

‘Supremely exalted then is Allah, the King, the Truth. And make not haste with the Qur’an before its revelation is made complete to thee, and say: My Lord, increase me in knowledge’ (xx. 114).

The typology of knowledge is an established fact, but the Qur’an disdains the outlook that demarcates knowledge into two diametrically opposed entities as profane and sacred or spiritual and theological, and Divine knowledge in contradistinction to mundane systems of knowledge, science and humanities, etc. Had it been so, the Qur’an would not have persuaded people to travel in search of knowledge (xviii. 65-66), study nature (xvi. 10-16), the conditions of different countries (xvi. 4), the histories of different nations (xxxiii. 62). Finally man is directed to control the forces of Nature (xvii. 70 ; vii. 40 etc.). There is nothing profane or sacred. All are the objects of creation and they are signs of God.

‘Those who remember Allah standing and sitting and (lying) on their sides and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth say: Our Lord Thou hast not created this in vain ; Glory be to Thee ; Save us from the Chastisement of the Fire’ (iii. 190).

Knowledge has been interpreted very broadly. The Qur’anic Wissensozialagie includes not only this area, but the entire gamut of things—physical, social, humanistic and supra-and super-physical, social and humanistic. The central orientation remains the socio-cultural axiological layer, space time realities, causality and the relations between knowledge and other existential factors in society and culture.

From the comprehensive sociological epistemology to the empirical relations of particular socio–cultural structure and ideas, the proliferation of concepts, ideas, belief, meaning and value-system, space-time causality, positive knowledge, thought, system of truth , superstructure, etc., form the content and meaning of the Qur’anic Wissensaziologie. The Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge is not concerned merely with tracing the existential basis of Truth (al-Rahman—lv. and Muzammil—lxxiii.)

but also of social illusion, superstition and socially conditioned errors and forms of deception (Kafirin—cix. and Munafiqun—lxiii etc.). This then, leads to the further problem of false consciousness. The above-quoted factors are neither in conformity with the interests of society nor situationally adequate.

‘When the hypocrites come to thee, they say: We bear witness that thou art indeed Allah’s Messenger. And Allah knows thou art indeed His Messenger And Allah bears witness that the hypocrites are surely liars’ (lxiii.I).

It has significantly been pointed out that all knowledge is one and the same. It cannot be divided into two opposite categories. The notion of research as an endless process through which a store of knowledge can be accumulated as the occasion demands, with the above perspective cannot divorce science from theology, philosophy and the spiritual science. All knowledge, according to the Qur’anic Sociology of Knowledge, leads to God. Whatever may be their category, they are His indicators:

‘And those who have no knowledge say: Why does not Allah speak to us or a sign come to us? Even thus said those before them, the like of what they say. Their hearts are all alike. Indeed We have made the messages clear for a people who are sure’ (ii. 118).

If viewed in the above perspective, truth, ontology, metaphysics and scientific output, etc., will certainly exhibit a tendency towards a meaningful integration of these with the meaning system.

‘Your God is one God: so those who believe not in the Hereafter, their hearts refuse to know and they are proud’ (xvi. 22).

The Sociology of Knowledge is dedicated to the searching out of the causes of variations in society and culture and exposing the criteria of significant, meaningful and valid knowledge and relating these to society, personality and culture and examining the socio-cultural and psychological processes, through which these operate, from the plane of general imputation to testable empirical inquiry.

‘And He it is Who spread the earth, and made in it firm mountains and rivers. And of all fruits He has made in it pairs, two (of every kind). He makes the night cover the day. Surely there are signs in this for a people who reflect. And in the earth are tracts side by side, and gardens of vine and corn, and palm-trees growing from one root and distinct roots .... they are watered with one water; and We make some of them to excel others in fruit. Surely there are signs in this for a people who understand’ (xiii.3-4).

The Qur’anic Sociology never neglects the importance of men of knowledge in society. These men are responsible for the testable empirical inquiry and the functional analysis of society and knowledge. The functional analysis, however, is intended to account not for the particular categorical system in society but for the existence of some logico-meaningful system in congruity with the system of meanings, envisaged by Divine light, common to society.

‘O you who believe, keep your duty to Allah and believe in His Messenger ... He will give you two portions of His mercy, and give you a light in which you shall walk, and forgive you. And Allah is Forgiving, Merciful’ (lxii. 28).

For purposes of intercommunication and for coordinating men‘s activities, a common set of categories is indispensable. The priorial mistake for the constant of an inevitable form of understanding is actually the very authority of society guided by the fundamental principles—the Muhkamat—transferring itself to a certain manner of thought which is the indispensable condition of all common action. The verse quoted below not only indicates the social role of men of knowledge and academicians, but clearly points out that there must be a certain logical conformity, if joint socio-cultural activities are to be maintained at all. Thus from this verse it is clear that a common set of categories is a functional necessity.

‘Our Lord, make not our hearts to deviate after Thou hast guided us and grant us mercy from Thee ; surely Thou art the most liberal Giver’ (iii . 7).

What has been pointed out above is that the imputations of perspectives and Weltanschauung, on coming into being in their social space-time dimensions, require systematic study before they can be accepted, but they indicate recent tendencies to seek out the perspective of scholars and to relate these to the framework of experience and interests constituted by their respective social position. The questionable character of imputations which are not based on adequate comparative meaningful material is illustrated by the account of the misguided Ulama of the Israelites.

To develop any further the formidable list of problems which require empirical investigation would not be possible here. Consequently, the summary account will give the idea of the nature, genesis and main axiological features of the Sociology of the Qur’an which recurringly demands that:

‘Supremely exalted then is Allah, the King, the Truth. And make not haste with the Qur’an before its revelation is made complete to thee and say: My Lord, increase me in knowledge’ (xx. 114).

Because it raised man in dignity:

‘Is he who is obedient during hours of the night, prostrating himself and standing, taking care of the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of his Lord ....? Say: Are those who know and those how know not alike? Only men of understanding mind’ (xxxix. 9).

And wisdom is a great good (ii. 269). There are three degrees of knowledge (cii. S-8) and the world, in spite of its advancement in science, technology, systems of knowledge and truth, has still not yet completed the first state.

‘And He taught Adam all the names, then presented them to the angels. He said: Tell Me the names of those if you are right. Glory be to Thee; we have no knowledge but that which thou has taught us. Surely Thou art the Knowing, the Wise. He said: O Adam, inform them of their names. So when he informed them of their names, He said: Did I not say to you that I know what is unseen in the heavens and the earth‘! And I know what you manifest and what you hide’ (ii. 31-33).

The other stages are far ahead. The story of Moses, relating his travels in search of knowledge in Sura al-Kahf, not only clarifies the nature, genesis, aims and objectives of knowledge, but it also gives the paradigm for the Sociology of Knowledge. The categories of inquiry may be classified in terms of where, what, how, why and when. There are of course additional categories for classifying and analyzing studies in the Sociology of Knowledge, which cannot be fully explored in this paper. The problem of the implications of existential influences upon knowledge, its epistemological and supra-super and hyper-epistemological states, has been the solution (viii. 82). From this story, it can be assumed that the Sociology of Knowledge is necessarily a sociological theory of knowledge. In its extreme relativism and socio-cultural causation, the story of Moses and the entire Sura Kahf with its story of Dhu al-Qarnain and Gog and Magog, leads us to infer that truth is a function of social and cultural basis. It rests solely upon a social consensus and consequently, any culturally accepted truth has claim to validity. Such being the flow of Qur’anic thought, the Prophet had to persuade his people to dedicate their life to the search of knowledge keep on searching knowledge from cradle to grave. The Sociology of Knowledge, as expounded by Ahadith, form the necessary corollary of the Qur’anic theory of Sociology of Knowledge. This is an exclusive topic and needs a separate treatment.