Muslim and the Renaissance

Muslim and the Renaissance

Dr. Hafizur Rahman Siddiqi

After centuries of inaction in Greece and elsewhere Muslim scholars resumed scientific activities in the eight century CE and maintained the same, with enthusiasm, for as long as five centuries. Their inscribed works, estimated to number 1.5 million, still survive in libraries and museums in more than 104 countries. These contributions are known to us largely because of the work carried out by western writers.

In recent years a prestigious and multi-volume book has been published in the US, called ‘A Dictionary of Science Biography’, the book has information about some 4,200 eminent scientists, out of whom many belong to Muslim Spain. Their field of research were astrology, physics, mathematics, chemistry, medicine and geography.

Not-only in Spain, but throughout the Muslim world, scholars enthusiastically pursued scientific activities back then. Prominent among the scholars were lbn Sina (Avicenna), Jabir lbn al Hytham, Khwarzami, Razi, lbn Nafis and Al-ldrisi.

Their eminence is widely acknowledged in the West. That is why Jabir and lbn al Haytham’s names are included in the list of the world's top 11 chemists and physicists which are inscribed over the main gates of the chemistry and physics departments of the Massachusetts institute of Technology.

it was the general practice of Muslim scholars to pen down their findings and then to distribute the same among their students without any discrimination. In an effort to take advantage of their generosity, many Europeans went to Spain and learnt sciences from them. Having thus been imbued with a desire to study science, the Europeans furthered scientific work in the countries of their origin.

First of all-the monks and the church-fathers of Spain turned towards these sciences. According to a comprehensive account by Dr.T.B. Irving (alias Hajj Ta’lim Ali Abu Nasr) In ‘How Arab Learning Reached Europe (Al-Momin, July 1982, Nairobi, Kenya), Rabbi bin Zayed, a bishop, learnt astrology and wrote a book in Arabic in the middle of the-tenth century. Similarly, Bishop Otto of Vich acquired proficiency in mathematics with the help of Muslim scholars in the second half of the century.

Later on, a number of people from the European monastic order studied the sciences developed by Muslims. Thereafter, Christians living outside Spain were attracted towards the acquisition of knowledge developed by Muslims.

John of Lorraine was the first monk who came to Cordoba in 953 AD. He was sent by Otto the Great for the very purpose of acquiring Muslim knowledge. He stayed there for three years and returned home after having benefited from Cordoban knowledge in astrology and astrophysics.

In the same century there came another monk—Jerbert of Aurillac — who learnt mathematics, particularly Arabic numerology which had been introduced into Spain through the work of Al-Khwarzami. Until then, the Latin numerals (l,ll,lll,l\/,V....,X,.....,C) were in vogue.

Latin numerals could be used for denoting numbers only. It was not possible to indicate addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using this system. Later, the introduction of Arabic numerals led to astounding progress in mathematics. Arabic and Latin numerals, when compared, may be likened to a comparison between hand-written numbers and those generated by computers.

After Jerbert, Pedro Alfonso went to Spain and studied medicine and astrophysics. He wrote a book on astrophysics and also prepared a map with the help of books written by Muslim geographers. Later on, he was appointed a physician to King Henry I. He also introduced Muslim medicine into England.

As interest in the work carried out by Muslim scientists grew and their importance became manifest, the people of Europe thought of translating their papers and books into their own languages. It was through the translation of those books that they could make progress in the sciences.

Since it was not possible for every Tom, Dick and Harry to learn Arabic or to go to Spain to master the sciences, translation bureaus were established at several places. One translation bureau was established in Toledo and one in Seville among other places.

According to Dr. Irving, the translation bureau in Toledo was established in 1135 AC, with the assistance of King Raymond l. It was a grand operation, led by a big team of linguists. In this bureau Arabic works on contemporary sciences – dealing with issues in astrophysics, mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy and medicine – were translated into Latin, Spanish, Greek and Castilian, Gerard of Cremona, Adelard of Bath, Michael Scot, Herman the German, Peter de Regio, Peter Gallego, Egidiode de Thebaldis and Judah Bin Moses are a few of the noteworthy translators who were part of this initiative.

Among these, Gerard of Cremona (died 1187 AD) excelled over others. He is stated to have to his credit 71 books, which he translated. According to another statement – by Dr. S.V.M. Tirmizi in “University of Salerno as a Link Between Muslims and western Renaissance” – his translated works totaled as astounding 92. Gerard translated the works of many renowned authors, not sticking to a particular field of study. He translated books on various topics, including: Zakaria Razi’s Al-Mansuri, as Liber Al-Mansuri, Al-Havi, as Liber of Continents, Avicenna’s Al-Qanoon, as the Canon of medicine; Al-Kindi’s book as Gradibus medicinarum chirugia; Al-Wafeed's book, as Liber Abenguefiti medicinarurn simplicium et ciborum; and, lbn ai Haytham’s book Al-Manazir, as Optical thesaurus.

Translators Michael Scot (died 1235 AC) and Adelard of Bath (died 1150 AC) also earned great fame. Michael Scot translated Averroe‘s commentary on Aristotle, whereas Adelard translated Euclid’s highly reputed Greek work ‘The Element’ into Latin. He used the Arabic text by Al-Hajjaj, since the original work had been lost. Likewise, the text of Ptolemy‘s Al-Magesti which Gerard of Cremona had used was in Arabic, since its original Greek copy had been destroyed.

Celebrated writer W. Kaunzner, in his paper entitled ‘On the Islamic influence upon Occidental Mathematics’, says that another important translation bureau was that of a famous scholar – King Alfonso the Tenth. Established in 1252 AC in Seville, Spain, this bureau proved very useful despite its smallness. There were a lot of Jews there.

They were keenly interested in translating the Muslims discoveries and findings into Greek and Hebrew so that the same may be disseminated among their co-religionists in Europe, enlightening them. The Jews lived comfortably under various Muslim regimes and were quite influenced by the academic progress made by their Muslim compatriots.

Spain was the only peaceful abode for Jews throughout Europe. Dr. Jacob Minkin, a famous Jewish writer and intellectual, writes: “Muslim Spain was the only land of peace and free for us (the Jews) in our thousand year period of destruction”.

Christian lords brought destruction and death upon Jews wherever they went at the time of the Crusades. During this entire period, the Jews found safety only in areas held by Muslims.

Not only were their lives and property safe, but they were free to develop their culture. Consequently, the Jews developed their culture so remarkably that the period turned into a golden one. The world had not witnessed such passion for learning among the kings and their subjects alike, since the passing away of the Greek period.

Alfonso the Tenth had employed Jewish translators as they knew Arabic quite well. They translated Arabic books and the Christian translators translated the same into Latin or other languages. The Jewish translators could also translate into European languages directly. Abraham of Toledo, lsacc bin Sid, Samuel Levi, Abu al-Affiyah and Judah bin Moses were some of the prominent Jews who translated books.

The third bureau of translation was established in a school in the coastal city of Salerno. The school was first established in 600 AC, but the bureau was also housed in it during the ‘l1th and 12th century. Here, books on medicine were generally translated. Later on this school was turned into a medical school so that the translated books could be utilized by students there.

According to Dr. S.V.M. Tirmizi, the translated work by Muslim scholars which were prescribed for study included: Avicenna's book of the laws of medicine, Qasim zahravi’s Al-Tasrif, Zakaria Razi’s Al-Havi, Averroe‘s Kulliyat and lbn-i-Zohr‘s Toiseer (or Taiysir). Some of the distinguished translators working in this school were Constantinus Africanus, Stephen of Pisa, Pedro Alfonso, Moses Farachi and Adelard of Bath.

Translation of the works by Muslim scholars and scientists was undertaken at both the institutional and individual level. And such activities went on in Portugal and Italy as well. This grand initiative lasted for three centuries (10th to 13th century), which is indeed a historical rarity. This underlines both the bulk and importance of the work done by Muslims.

After notable books had been translated, colleges and universities started emerging in quick succession, despite a ban on dissemination of knowledge outside the pale of the church. The universities of Muslim Spain represented a strong incentive in this regard.

The first university was established in 1158 AC in Bologna under a charter from King Fredrick I. Since the kings were subservient to the church, some scholars believe that the consent from the latter had been obtained. Later on, the universities of Valencia (1212 AC), Salamanca (1230 AC) and Mersia (1254 AC) were established in Spain. Other universities which were established were: Toulous (1234 AC) and Orleans (1306 AC) in France, and Padua (1212 AC), Naples (1224 AC) and Rome (1244 AC) in Italy. In England Balliol (1266 AC) and Peter House (1284 AC) also got their own universities.

University of Lisbona (1390 AC) was established in Portugal. More universities were established in Europe thereafter. In several of these universities, Arabic language was one of the medium of instruction. According to Dr. lrving, the education council in 1312 AC introduced Arabic as a subject in the universities of Oxford, Salamanca, Paris and Vienna on behalf of the Pope.

With the translation of the Muslim’s scientific works into European languages and the establishment of colleges and universities outside the four walls of the church, a beam of knowledge radiated throughout Europe. Consequently, an ignorant Europe came out of the darkness the papal system had plunged it into during the 5th century AC. This is what we know today as the European Renaissance.